Tunç Çağı’nda Mezopotamya’da Lapis Lazulinin Temini, Kullanımı ve Önemi
Öz
Lapis lazuli, doğada çok kolay bulunan bir taş değildir. Lapis lazulinin elde edildiği dünyadaki ana üretim alanları Güney Amerika, Baykal Gölü ve Afganistan’ın Bedahşan bölgesidir. Dolayısıyla çalışma sahamızı oluşturan Mezopotamya coğrafyasında bu taşın kaynağı yoktur. Bereketli ovalara sahip olan Mezopotamya tarımsal ürünler, bitümen ve kil yönünden zengin olmasına rağmen taş, maden ve ağaç bakımından fakir bir bölgedir. Bu durum Mezopotamya halklarını, tarihleri boyunca ihtiyaç duydukları maddeleri komşu bölgelerden temin etmeye zorunlu kılmıştır. Dolayısıyla erken çağlardan itibaren Mezopotamya’nın çevre bölgelerle ticari ilişkilerinin başladığı görülmektedir. Lapis lazulinin, Mezopotamya’da Prehistorik dönemlerden itibaren kullanıldığı ve ilerleyen dönemlerde Mezopotamya uygarlıkları tarafından, özellikle de Sümerler tarafından, çok beğenilen ve aranan bir taş olduğu görülmektedir. Mezopotamya uygarlıkları bu taşı kendileri kullanmalarının yanı sıra onun Mısır ve Anadolu’ya taşınmasına da öncülük etmişlerdir.
Bu çalışmanın amacı Mezopotamya coğrafyasında bulunmamasına rağmen çok erken tarihlerden itibaren kullanıldığı görülen lapis lazulinin, hangi kaynaklardan temin edildiği, bölgeye nasıl ulaştığı, hangi alanlarda kullanım gördüğü ve Mezopotamya uygarlıkları tarafından bu taşa ne tür anlamlar yüklendiğini ortaya çıkarmaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Tam Metin:
PDFReferanslar
Ajango, K. M. (2010). New Thoughts On The Trade Of Lapıs Lazuli In The Ancient Near East C. 3000 – 2000 B.C. Submitted to the Faculty of The Archaeological Studies Program Department of Sociology and Archaeology. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse.
Archi, A. (2017). Lapis Lazuli and shells From Mari to Ebla. Ç. Maner, M.T. Horowitz(Ed.) Overturning Certainties in Near Eastern Archaeology. A Festchrift in Honor of K. Aslıhan Yener (pp. 34-47). Leiden: Brill.
Aston, B. (1994). Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels. Materials and Forms. Heidelberg: Orientverlag.
Barret, E. C. (2007). Was Dust Their Food and Clay Their Bread? Grave Goods, the Mezopotamian Afterlife, and, the Liminal Role of Inanna/Isthar. JANER 7 (1), 7-65.
Biggs, R. D. (1967). ŠÀ.ZI.GA Ancient Mesopotamian Potency Incantations, Text from Cuneiform Sources A. L. Oppenheim, J. J. Augu (Ed). Newyork: Locust Valley.
CAD (2010). The Assyrian Dictionary, Volume 20, U-W, R. D. Biggs, et al. (Ed.). Chicago: The Oriental Institute.
Casanova, M. (2000). Le lapis-lazuli de l’Asie centrale à la Syrie au Chalcolithique et à l’âge du Bronze: Traits Communs et particularités régionales, in: P. Matthiae, L. Peyronel, F. Pinnock (Ed.). Proceedings of the First International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. (pp. 171-184). Roma: Università degli studi di Roma La Sapienza.
Casanova, M. (2001). Le lapis-lazuli, la pierre précieuse de l'Orient ancien. Dialogues D'histoire Ancienne, 27, 2, 149-170.
Casanova, M. (2008). Lapis Lazuli. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, M. Evans (Ed.). Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade and Diplomacy in the second Millenium BC. (pp. 68-70). New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Casanova, M. (2019). Exchanges and Trade During the Bronze Age in Iran. J. Meyer, E. Vila, M. Mashkour, et al. (Ed.). The Iranian Plateau During The Bronze Age: Development of Urbanisation, Production and Trade (pp. 301-312). Lyon : MOM Éditions.
Cohen, A. C. (2007). Barley as a Key Symbol in Early Mesopotamia. J. Cheng, M. Feldman (Ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter, (pp. 411-422), Leiden: Brill.
Cooper, J. S. (2002). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: The Lagash-Umma border conflict. Malibu: Undena Publications.
Dilek, Y. (2019). Eski Mezopotamya Dini Ritüelleri ve Kullanılan Objeler. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Konya.
Duffin C. J. (2014). The Pharmaceutical use of Lapis Lazuli in the Ancient East. British Society for the History of Pharmacy, 44 (4), pp. 84-87.
Farber, G. (1984). Another Old Babylonian Childbirth Incantation. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 43 (4), pp. 311-316.
Goff, B. L. (1956). The Rôle of Amulets in Mesopotamian Ritual Texts. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 19 (1/2), pp. 1-39.
Grayson, A. K. (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions. Vol. I, From the Beginning to Ashur-resha-ishi I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Grayson, A. K (1976). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions. Vol. II, From Tiglat-Pileser I to Ashur-nasir-apli II. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Grayson, A. K. (1996). Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millenium BC II(858-745).The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods 3. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press.
Gries, H. (2019). Votive Objects from the Temple of Aššur at Aššur. J.E.Rossberger & E. Rossberger (Ed.). Ancient Near Eastern Temple Inventories in the Third and Second Millennia BCE: Integrating Archaeological, Textual, and Visual Sources. Proceedings of a con ference held at the LMU Centre for Advanced Studies, November 14–15, 2016. (pp. 139-149). Germany: PeWe-Verlag.
Günbattı, C. (2017). Kültepe-Kaniş. Kayseri Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları.
Herrmann, G. (1968). Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade. Iraq, XXX(1), pp. 21-57.
Kramer,S. N. (1952). Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, A Sumerian Epic 1 Tale of Iraq and Iran. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Kramer, S. N. (2002). Sümerler. İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi.
Langdon, S. (1923). Two Sumerian Hymns from Eridu and Nippur. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 39, pp. 161-186.
Law, R.W. (2014). Evaluating Potential Lapis lazuli Sources for Ancient South Asia Using Sulphure Isotope Analysis. C.C. Lamberg-Karlovski, B. Genito & B. Cerasetti, (Ed.), “My life is like the Summer Rose”: Maurizio Tosi e l’Archeologia come modo di vivere. Papers in honour of Maurizio Tosi for his 70th birthday. Archaeopress (pp. 419-429). Oxford: Archaeopress.
Luckenbill D. D. (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon, Vol. I, Chicago: Chicago Press.
Luckenbill, D. D. (1927). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End, Vol II, Chicago: Chicago Press.
Massa, M. & Palmisano, A., (2018). Change and Continuity in the Long-distance Exchange Networks between Western/Central Anatolia, Northern Levant and Northern Mesopotamia, c.3200- 1600 BC. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 49, pp. 65-87.
Mclntosh J. R. (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley. California: ABC-CLIO.
Michel, C. (1999). Les joyaux des rois de Mari. A. Caubet (Ed.). Cornaline et pierres précieuses. La Méditerranée, de l’Antiquité à l’Islam. (pp. 401 432). Paris : La Documentation Française.
Moorey, P.R.S. (1994). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Oppenheim, A. L. (1970). Glasses in Mesopotamian Sources. In A. L. Oppenheim / R. H. Brill / D. Barag / A. von Saldern: Glass and Glassmaking in Ancient Mesopotamia. (pp. 9-21) .New York: The Corning Museum of Glass.
Parrot, A. (1965). Les Fouilles de Mari. Syria 42 (3-4), pp. 197-225.
Peasnall, B. &Rothman M. S. (2002). One of Iraq’s Earliest Townns. Excavating Tepe GAwra in the Archives of the University of the Pennsylvania Museum 45 (3), pp. 34-39.
Pinncok, E. (2006). The Raw Lapis Lazuli in the Royal Palace G of Ebla. Weights in context: Bronze age weighing systems of Eastern Mediterranean : chronology, typology, material and archaeological contexts : proceedings of the International colloquium, Rome 22nd-24th November 2004. Roma: Istituto italiano di numismatica.
Polonsky, J. (2002). The Rise of the Sun God and the Determination of Destiny in Ancient Mesopotamia, in Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
Sarianidi, V.I. & Kowalski, L.H. (1971). The Lapis Lazuli Route in the Ancient East. Archaeology 24 ( 1/1), pp. 12-15.
Sasson, J. M. (2008). Texts, Trade and Travelers. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, M. Evans (Ed.). Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade and Diplomacy in the second Millenium BC. (pp. 95-100). New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Scurlock, J. (1991). Baby-Snatching Demons, Restless Souls and the Dangers of Childbirth: Medico-Magical Means of Dealing with Some of the Perils of Motherhood in Ancient Mesopotamia. Incognita, 2, pp. 137-185.
Sowada, K. (2009). Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean During the Old Kingdom: An Archaeological Perspective.Göttingen, Fribourg: Fribourg, Academic Press.
Sümer Kral Destanları-Enmerkar-Lugalbanda. (2012). (çev: S. F. Adalı & A. T. Görgü). İstanbul: İş Bankası Yayınları.
Thavapalan, S. (2019). The Meaning of Color in Ancient Mesopotamia. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 104. Leiden: Brill.
Thompson, C. (1931). The Prisms of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal Found at Nineveh, 1927-28. London: Printed by Order of the Trustees, sold at the British Museum.
Tosi, M. & Vidale, M. (1990). 4th Millennium BC Lapis Lazuli Working at Mehrgarh, Pakistan. Paléorient 16, pp. 89-99.
Tosi, M. (1974). The Lapis Lazuli Trade Across the Iranian Plateau in the 3rd Millennium B.C. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale.
Vaggelli, G., Es Sebar, L., Borghi A., Cossio, R., Re A., Fantino, F. & Lo Giudice, A. (2019). Improvements to the analytical protocol of lapis lazuli provenance: First study on Myanmar rock samples. The European Physical Journal Plus. 134: 104. Ss. 1-15.
von Rosen, L. (1988). Lapis Lazuli in Geological Contexts and in Ancient Written Sources. Partille: Åström.
Winter, I. J. (1999). The Aesthetic Value of Lapis Lazuli in Mesopotamia. Cornaline et pierres précieuses. A. Caubet (Ed.). La Méditerranée de l’ Antiquité à l’ Islam (s. 43-58). Paris: Musée du Louvre.
Woolley, C. L. (1934). Ur Excavations The Royal Cemetery: A Report On And Sargonid The Predynastic Graves Excavated Between I926 And 1931. Volume I. London: British Museum.
Zöldföldi, J., Richter, S., Kasztovszky, Z. & Mihali, J. (2006). Where does lapis lazuli come from? Non-destructive provenance analysis by PGAA, in: J. Pérez-Arantegui (Ed.), Proceedings of the 34th International Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza 3-7 May 2004. (pp. 353-361).Istitucion Fernando el Catolico, Zaragoza.
Refback'ler
- Şu halde refbacks yoktur.
Bu eser Creative Commons Atıf 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.